| In recent years, Third Language Acquisition (TLA) in Cross-Linguistic Influence (CLI) research
has been debated regarding background languages’ impact on learning a target language. While
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research often emphasizes the primary influence of the first
language (L1) on the target language, it does not discount the possibility of other languages,
including the second language (L2), having an influence. In contrast, TLA argues that multiple
background languages can also transfer into a third language (L3). Results vary due to learner-
related factors and methodological differences, and uncertainty remains regarding reliable
language transfer models and the significance of learner variability in L3 acquisition. To address
these inconsistencies, this study utilized a meta-analysis approach that aggregated effect sizes
from 29 peer-reviewed journal articles and two unpublished dissertations/reports from 2010 to
2021, focusing on SLA and TLA. The study then calculated the average correlation between
transfer models and proficiency in a third language, aiming to identify the most effective transfer
models to help learners overcome the difficulties of learning a third language.
Furthermore, the study examined the effects of learner-related factors and different
methodological approaches to establish consistency among the study findings. The analysis used
a common metric (Hedge’s g) with the assistance of R programming software to calculate each
study’s effect size. The result showed no significant difference in the effect sizes for the ten
proposed language transfer models. However, the regression analysis of the moderator variables
indicated that individual differences such as language proficiency level and educational setting
played a significant role in the TLA process and in determining the learners’ target language
proficiency at the initial and later stages of learning.
The findings can be helpful for curriculum developers and instructors, providing insight into
multilingual learners’ unique needs and variabilities. Along with this understanding, curriculum
developers and instructors can modify their instructional methods to accommodate these
differences, ultimately assisting multilingual learners in enhancing their proficiency in the target
language.
Keywords: Cross-linguistic Influence, Second/Third Language Acquisition, Meta-analysis,
Morphosyntax, Transfer Models |